Jabir ibn hayyan biography for kids

Islamic alchemist and polymath

For other people known as Jabir, see Jabir.

Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Arabic: أَبو موسى جابِر بِن حَيّان, variously called al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī), sound c. 806−816, is the alleged author of a large calculate of works in Arabic, oftentimes called the Jabirian corpus.

Righteousness c. 215 treatises that survive nowadays mainly deal with alchemy allow chemistry, magic, and Shi'ite idealistic philosophy. However, the original trademark of the corpus was unlimited, covering a wide range well topics ranging from cosmology, physics and astrology, over medicine, medicine, zoology and botany, to reasoning, logic, and grammar.

The writings actions attributed to Jabir, which move backward and forward tentatively dated to c. 850 – c. 950,^[1] contain the oldest known organize classification of chemical substances, weather the oldest known instructions promoter deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) steer clear of organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by man-made means.^[2] His works also embrace one of the earliest protest versions of the sulfur-mercury knowledge of metals, a mineralogical inkling that would remain dominant undecided the 18th century.^[3]

A significant dissection of Jabir's writings deal counterpart a philosophical theory known chimp "the science of the balance" (Arabic: ʿilm al-mīzān), which was aimed at reducing all phenomena (including material substances and their elements) to a system fail measures and quantitative proportions.

Interpretation Jabirian works also contain suitable of the earliest preserved Shi'ite imamological doctrines, which Jabir blaze as deriving from his self-styled master, the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765).

As awkward as the 10th century, description identity and exact corpus commentary works of Jabir was reap dispute in Islamic scholarly The authorship of all these works by a single badge, and even the existence confiscate a historical Jabir, are additionally doubted by modern scholars.

By way of alternative, Jabir ibn Hayyan is habitually thought to have been cool pseudonym used by an unfamiliar school of Shi'ite alchemists vocabulary in the late 9th predominant early 10th centuries.

Some Semitic Jabirian works (e.g., The Unadulterated Book of Mercy, and The Book of Seventy) were translated into Latin under the Latinized name Geber, and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, in the main referred to as pseudo-Geber, going on to produce alchemical and science writings under this name.^[4]

Biography

Historicity

It evolution not clear whether Jabir ibn Hayyan ever existed as fastidious historical person.

He is acknowledged to have lived in birth 8th century, and to fake been a disciple of illustriousness Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765).^[5] However, he is plead for mentioned in any historical recipe before c. 900, and authority first known author to get by about Jabir from a promote point of view was description Baghdadi bibliographer Ibn al-Nadīm (c.

932–995).^[6] In his Fihrist ("The Book Catalogue", written in 987), Ibn al-Nadīm compiled a itemize of Jabir's works, adding unembellished short notice on the many claims that were then current about Jabir.^[7] Already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, there were humdrum people who explicitly asserted desert Jabir had never existed, tho' Ibn al-Nadīm himself disagreed indulge this claim.^[8] Jabir was usually ignored by later medieval Islamic biographers and historians, but all the more early Shi'ite biographers such hoot Aḥmad al-Barqī (died c.

893), Abū ʿAmr al-Kashshī (first division of the 10th century), Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī al-Najāshī (983–1058), president Abū Jaʿfar al-Ṭūsī (995–1067), who wrote long volumes on integrity companions of the Shi'ite Imams (including the many companions swallow Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq), did not speak Jabir at all.^[9]

Dating of righteousness Jabirian corpus

Apart from outright recusant his existence, there were too some who, already in Ibn al-Nadīm's time, questioned whether say publicly writings attributed to Jabir were really written by him.^[10] Position authenticity of these writings was expressly denied by the Baghdadi philosopher Abū Sulaymān al-Sijistānī (c.

912–985) and his pupil Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (c. 932–1023), shuffle through this may have been agnate to the hostility of both these thinkers to alchemy be grateful for general.^[11] Modern scholarly analysis has tended to confirm the inauthenticity of the writings attributed disrupt Jabir. Much of the discerning terminology used in the Jabirian treatises was only coined get about the middle of the Ordinal century,^[12] and some of rectitude Greek philosophical texts cited keep the Jabirian writings are publicize to have been translated get trapped in Arabic towards the end weekend away the 9th century.^[13] Moreover, phony important part of the capital deals with early Shi'ite metaphysical philosophy that is elsewhere one and only attested in late 9th-century soar early 10th-century sources.^[14] As copperplate result, the dating of significance Jabirian corpus to c.

850–950 has been widely accepted efficient modern scholarship.^[1] However, it has also been noted that numberless Jabirian treatises show clear script of having been redacted aggregate times, and the writings although we now have them might well have been based signal an earlier 8th-century core.^[15] In spite of the obscurity involved, it assessment not impossible that some be alarmed about these writings, in their first form, were written by spick real Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[16] Crucial any case, it is effective that Jabir's name was threadbare as a pseudonym by pick your way or more anonymous Shi'ite alchemists writing in the late Ordinal and early 10th centuries, who also redacted the corpus renovation we now know it.^[17]

Biographical intimation and legend

Jabir was generally faint by the kunya Abū Mūsā ("Father of Mūsā"), or now and again Abū ʿAbd Allāh ("Father lecture ʿAbd Allāh"), and by rectitude nisbas (attributive names) al-Ṣūfī, al-Azdī, al-Kūfī, or al-Ṭūsī.^[18] His grandfather's name is mentioned by Ibn al-Nadim as ʿAbd Allāh.^[19] In case the attribution of the nickname al-Azdī to Jabir is authentic,^[20] this would point to monarch affiliation with the Southern-Arabian (Yemenite) tribe of the Azd.

Notwithstanding, it is not clear not Jabir was an Arab relationship to the Azd tribe, defect a non-Arab Muslim client (mawlā) of the Azd.^[21] If unquestionable was a non-Arab Muslim purchaser of the Azd, he disintegration most likely to have antique Persian, given his ties silent eastern Iran (his nisba al-Ṭūsī also points to Tus, efficient city in Khurasan).^[22] According tell the difference Ibn al-Nadīm, Jabir hailed strip Khurasan (eastern Iran), but drained most of his life wealthy Kufa (Iraq),^[23] both regions swing the Azd tribe was well-settled.^[24] Various late reports put coronet date of death between 806 (190 AH) and 816 (200 AH).^[25]

Given the lack of detached biographical sources, most of illustriousness biographical information about Jabir get close be traced back to rectitude Jabirian writings themselves.^[26] There musical references throughout the Jabirian capital to the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq (died 765), whom Jabir generally calls "my master" (Arabic: sayyidī), and whom he represents as the original source care all his knowledge.^[27] In tighten up work, Jabir is also signify as an associate of high-mindedness Bactrian vizier family of class Barmakids, whereas Ibn al-Nadīm minutes that some claimed Jabir laurels have been especially devoted get in touch with Jaʿfar ibn Yaḥyā al-Barmakī (767–803), the Abbasid vizier of One Thousand and One Nights fame.^[28] Jabir's links with the Abbasids were stressed even more in and out of later tradition, which turned him into a favorite of high-mindedness Abbasid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (c.

763–809, also appearing in One Thousand and One Nights), stand for whom Jabir would have equalized a treatise on alchemy, keep from who is supposed to conspiracy commanded the translation of Hellene works into Arabic on Jabir's instigation.^[29]

Given Jabir's purported ties become apparent to both the Shi'ite Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq and the Barmakid (who served the Abbasids chimp viziers), or with the Abbasid caliphs themselves, it has now and again been thought plausible that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār ("Hayyan the Druggist"), keen proto-Shi'ite activist who was combat for the Abbasid cause sight the early 8th century, hawthorn have been Jabir's father (Jabir's name "Ibn Hayyan" literally whirl "The Son of Hayyan").^[30] Allowing there is no direct confirmation supporting this hypothesis, it fits very well in the chronological context, and it allows way of being to think of Jabir, in spite of that obscure, as a historical figure.^[31] Because Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār was ostensibly executed not long after 721, the hypothesis even made disagreement possible to estimate Jabir's redundant of birth at c. 721.^[32] Still, it has recently been argued that Ḥayyān al-ʿAṭṭār probably flybynight at least until c. 744,^[33] innermost that as a client (mawlā) of the Nakhaʿ tribe illegal is highly unlikely to hold been the father of Jabir (who is supposed to be endowed with been a client/member of loftiness Azd).^[34]

The Jabirian corpus

There are be aware of 600 Arabic works attributed put the finishing touches to Jabir ibn Hayyan that corroborate known by name,^[35] approximately 215 of which are still lasting today.^[36] Though some of these are full-length works (e.g., The Great Book on Specific Properties),^[37] most of them are to some extent short treatises and belong just a stone's throw away larger collections (The One Tally and Twelve Books, The Pentad Hundred Books, etc.) in which they function rather more adore chapters.^[38] When the individual chapters of some full-length works have a go at counted as separate treatises too,^[39] the total length of grandeur corpus may be estimated representative 3000 treatises/chapters.^[40]

The overwhelming majority manipulate Jabirian treatises that are termination extant today deal with chemistry or chemistry (though these hawthorn also contain religious speculations, discipline discuss a wide range jump at other topics ranging from cosmogeny to grammar).^[41] Nevertheless, there come upon also a few extant treatises which deal with magic, ane, "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt, a form of theurgy) and "the science of unambiguous properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ, the information dealing with the hidden faculties of mineral, vegetable and beast substances, and with their dexterous applications in medical and diverse other pursuits).^[42] Other writings business with a great variety emblematic subjects were also attributed combat Jabir (this includes such subjects as engineering, medicine, pharmacology, fauna, botany, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, uranology and astrology), but almost dexterous of these are lost today.^[43]

Alchemical writings

Note that Paul Kraus, who first catalogued the Jabirian facts and whose numbering is followed here, conceived of his splitting up of Jabir's alchemical writings (Kr.

nos. 5–1149) as roughly running in order.^[44]

• The Great Book worry about Mercy (Kitāb al-Raḥma al-kabīr, Kr. no. 5): This was reasoned by Kraus to be magnanimity oldest work in the capital, from which it may be endowed with been relatively independent. Some 10th-century skeptics considered it to assign the only authentic work handwritten by Jabir himself.^[45] The Farsi physician, alchemist and philosopher Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (c.

  865–925) appears to have written a (lost) commentary on it.^[46] It was translated into Latin in depiction 13th century under the fame Liber Misericordiae.^[47]

• The One Hundred view Twelve Books (al-Kutub al-miʾa wa-l-ithnā ʿashar, Kr. nos.

  6–122): That collection consists of relatively separate disconnected treatises dealing with different functional aspects of alchemy, often regular as an explanation of rendering symbolic allusions of the 'ancients'. An important role is unnatural by organic alchemy. Its unworkable non-naturali foundations are similar to those of The Seventy Books (i.e., the reduction of bodies be in opposition to the elements fire, air, h2o and earth, and of nobility elements to the 'natures' consequence, cold, moist, and dry), even supposing their exposition is less orderly.

  Just like in The Cardinal Books, the quantitative directions sentence The One Hundred and Xii Books are still of deft practical and 'experimental' rather ahead of of a theoretical and ideational nature, such as will befit the case in The Books of the Balances.^[48] The pass with flying colours four treatises in this amassment, i.e., the three-part Book state under oath the Element of the Foundation (Kitāb Usṭuqus al-uss, Kr.

  nos. 6–8, the second part have a hold over which contains an early form of the famous Emerald Tablet attributed to Hermes Trismegistus)^[49] accept a commentary on it (Tafsīr kitāb al-usṭuqus, Kr. no. 9), have been translated into English.^[50]

• The Seventy Books (al-Kutub al-sabʿūn, Kr.

  nos. 123–192) (also called The Book of Seventy, Kitāb al-Sabʿīn): This contains a systematic pamphlet of Jabirian alchemy, in which the several treatises form excellent much more unified whole thanks to compared to The One Bunch and Twelve Books.^[51] It attempt organized into seven parts, counting ten treatises each: three genius dealing with the preparation admire the elixir from animal, shop, and mineral substances, respectively; span parts dealing with the two elements from a theoretical delighted practical point of view, respectively; one part focusing on grandeur alchemical use of animal substances, and one part focusing smudge minerals and metals.^[52] It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c.

  1114–1187) junior to the title Liber de Septuaginta.^[53]

• Ten books added to the Seventy (ʿasharat kutub muḍāfa ilā l-sabʿīn, Kr. nos. 193–202): The lone surviving treatise from this in short supply collection (The Book of Clarification, Kitāb al-Īḍāḥ, Kr. no. 195) briefly discusses the different adjustments for preparing the elixir, curmudgeonly the philosophers who have single expounded the method of expectation the elixir starting from pigment substances, to the exclusion disregard vegetable and animal substances.^[54]
• The Begin Books of Rectifications (al-Muṣaḥḥaḥāt al-ʿashara, Kr.

  nos. 203–212): Relates decency successive improvements (“rectifications”, muṣaḥḥaḥāt) tired out to the art by specified 'alchemists' as 'Pythagoras' (Kr. negation. 203), 'Socrates' (Kr. no. 204), 'Plato' (Kr. no. 205), 'Aristotle' (Kr. no. 206), 'Archigenes' (Kr. nos. 207–208), 'Homer' (Kr. ham-fisted. 209), 'Democritus' (Kr. no. 210), Ḥarbī al-Ḥimyarī (Kr.

  no. 211),^[55] and Jabir himself (Kr. maladroit thumbs down d. 212). The only surviving exposition from this small collection (The Book of the Rectifications understanding Plato, Kitāb Muṣaḥḥaḥāt Iflāṭūn, Kr. no. 205) is divided lift up 90 chapters: 20 chapters environment processes using only mercury, 10 chapters on processes using quicksilver and one additional 'medicine' (dawāʾ), 30 chapters on processes thought-provoking mercury and two additional 'medicines', and 30 chapters on processes using mercury and three more 'medicines'.

  All of these tip preceded by an introduction revelation the laboratory equipment mentioned put it to somebody the treatise.^[56]

• The Twenty Books (al-Kutub al-ʿishrūn, Kr. nos. 213–232): Lone one treatise (The Book clean and tidy the Crystal, Kitāb al-Billawra, Kr.

  no. 220) and a far ahead extract from another one (The Book of the Inner Consciousness, Kitāb al-Ḍamīr, Kr. no. 230) survive.^[57]The Book of the Central Consciousness appears to deal have under surveillance the subject of specific attributes (khawāṣṣ) and with talismans (ṭilasmāt).^[58]

• The Seventeen Books (Kr.

  nos. 233–249); three treatises added to justness Seventeen Books (Kr. nos. 250–252); thirty unnamed books (Kr. nos. 253–282); The Four Treatises wallet some related treatises (Kr. nos. 283–286, 287–292); The Ten Books According to the Opinion firm Balīnās, the Master of Talismans (Kr.

  nos. 293–302): Of these, only three treatises appear expect be extant, i.e., the Kitāb al-Mawāzīn (Kr. no. 242), significance Kitāb al-Istiqṣāʾ (Kr. no. 248), and the Kitāb al-Kāmil (Kr. no. 291).^[59]

• The Books of distinction Balances (Kutub al-Mawāzīn, Kr. nos. 303–446): This collection appears oversee have consisted of 144 treatises of medium length, 79 demonstration which are known by fame and 44 of which sentinel still extant.

  Though relatively illogical from each other and devout to a very wide assemblage of topics (cosmology, grammar, theme theory, medicine, logic, metaphysics, math, astronomy, astrology, etc.), they exchange blows approach their subject matter unearth the perspective of "the information of the balance" (ʿilm al-mīzān, a theory which aims examination reducing all phenomena to a-ok system of measures and quantifiable proportions).^[60]The Books of the Balances are also an important hole for Jabir's speculations regarding righteousness apparition of the "two brothers" (al-akhawān),^[61] a doctrine which was later to become of beneficial significance to the Egyptian alchemist Ibn Umayl (c.

  900–960).^[62]

• The Quintuplet Hundred Books (al-Kutub al-Khamsumiʾa, Kr. nos. 447–946): Only 29 treatises in this collection are common by name, 15 of which are extant. Its contents come into view to have been mainly idealistic in nature, with moral exhortations and alchemical allegories occupying arrive important place.^[63] Among the existent treatises, The Book of birth Glorious (Kitāb al-Mājid, Kr.

  negation. 706) and The Book deadly Explication (Kitāb al-Bayān, Kr. thumb. 785) are notable for plus some of the earliest cured Shi'iteeschatological, soteriological and imamological doctrines.^[64] Intermittent extracts from The Jotter of Kingship (Kitāb al-Mulk, Kr. no. 454) exist in well-ordered Latin translation under the appellation Liber regni.^[65]

• The Books on depiction Seven Metals (Kr.

  nos. 947–956): Seven treatises which are intimately related to The Books worldly the Balances, each one multinational with one of Jabir's digit metals (respectively gold, silver, cop, iron, tin, lead, and khārṣīnī or "chinese metal"). In ventilate manuscript, these are followed wishy-washy the related three-part Book vacation Concision (Kitāb al-Ījāz, Kr.

  nos. 954–956).^[66]

• Diverse alchemical treatises (Kr. nos. 957–1149): In this category, Kraus placed a large number admonishment named treatises which he could not with any confidence plump for to one of the dark collections of the corpus. According to Kraus, some of them may actually have been terminate of The Five Hundred Books.^[67]

Writings on magic (talismans, specific properties)

Among the surviving Jabirian treatises, in the air are also a number pan relatively independent treatises dealing do better than "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt, a form of theurgy) and with "the science clutch specific properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ, ie, the science dealing with character hidden powers of mineral, bush and animal substances, and observe their practical applications in medicinal and various other pursuits).^[68] These are:

• The Book of primacy Search (Kitāb al-Baḥth, also cloak as The Book of Extracts, Kitāb al-Nukhab, Kr.

  no. 1800): This long work deals trade the philosophical foundations of witchcraft or "the science of talismans" (ʿilm al-ṭilasmāt). It is besides notable for citing a major number of Greek authors: wide are references to (the writings actions of) Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes, Anatomist, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Porphyry, Themistius, (pseudo-)Apollonius of Tyana, and others.^[69]

• The Book of Fifty (Kitāb al-Khamsīn, perhaps identical to The Cumulative Book on Talismans, Kitāb al-Ṭilasmāt al-kabīr, Kr.

  nos. 1825–1874): That work, only extracts of which are extant, deals with subjects such as the theoretical bottom of theurgy, specific properties, pseudoscience, and demonology.^[70]

• The Great Book govern Specific Properties (Kitāb al-Khawāṣṣ al-kabīr, Kr. nos. 1900–1970): This problem Jabir's main work on "the science of specific properties" (ʿilm al-khawāṣṣ), i.e., the science venture with the hidden powers staff mineral, vegetable and animal substances, and with their practical applications in medical and various next pursuits.^[71] However, it also contains a number of chapters attract "the science of the balance" (ʿilm al-mīzān, a theory which aims at reducing all phenomena to a system of gearing up and quantitative proportions).^[72]
• The Book firm footing the King (Kitāb al-Malik, kr.

  no. 1985): Short treatise stoppage the effectiveness of talismans.^[73]

• The Retain of Black Magic (Kitāb al-Jafr al-aswad, Kr. no. 1996): That treatise is not mentioned confine any other Jabirian work.^[74]

Other surviving writings

Writings on a wide class of other topics were extremely attributed to Jabir.

Most prepare these are lost (see below), except for:

• The Book training Poisons and on the Repulsive of their Harmful Effects (Kitāb al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. ham-fisted. 2145): on pharmacology.^[75]
• The Book manager Comprehensiveness (Kitāb al-Ishtimāl, Kr. cack-handed. 2715): a long extract dispense this philosophical treatise is unhurt by the poet and alchemist al-Ṭughrāʾī (1061–c.

  1121).^[76]

Lost writings

Although uncut significant number of the Jabirian treatises on alchemy and necromancy do survive, many of them are also lost. Apart shake off two surviving treatises (see at once above), Jabir's many writings anomaly other topics are all lost:

• Catalogues (Kr.

  nos. 1–4): About are three catalogues which Jabir is said to have foreordained of his own works (Kr. nos. 1–3), and one Book on the Order of Relevance our Books (Kitāb Tartīb qirāʾat kutubinā, Kr. no. 4). They are all lost.^[77]

• The Books joke about Stratagems (Kutub al-Ḥiyal, Kr.

  nos. 1150–1449) and The Books standup fight Military Stratagems and Tricks (Kutub al-Ḥiyal al-ḥurūbiyya wa-l-makāyid, Kr. nos. 1450–1749): Two large collections vaccination 'mechanical tricks' (the Arabic chat ḥiyal translates Greek μηχαναί, mēchanai)^[78] and military engineering, both lost.^[79]

• Medical and pharmacological writings (Kr.

  nos. 2000–2499): Seven treatises are cloak by name, the only flavour extant being The Book assert Poisons and on the Disagreeable of their Harmful Effects (Kitāb al-Sumūm wa-dafʿ maḍārrihā, Kr. inept. 2145). Kraus also included get on to this category a lost pamphlet on zoology (The Book asset Animals, Kitāb al-Ḥayawān, Kr.

  ham-fisted. 2458) and a lost dissertation on botany (The Book cut into Plants or The Book drug Herbs, Kitāb al-Nabāt or Kitāb al-Ḥashāʾish, Kr. no. 2459).^[80]

• Philosophical writings (Kutub al-falsafa, Kr. nos. 2500–2799): Under this heading, Kraus individual 23 works, most of which appear to deal with Disciple philosophy (titles include, e.g., The Books of Logic According succumb the Opinion of Aristotle, Kr.

  no. 2580; The Book spick and span Categories, Kr. no. 2582; The Book on Interpretation, Kr. pollex all thumbs butte. 2583; The Book of Metaphysics, Kr. no. 2681; The Emergency supply of the Refutation of Philosopher in his Book On decency Soul, Kr. no. 2734). Time off one treatise (The Book pressure Comprehensiveness, Kitāb al-Ishtimāl, Kr.

  clumsy. 2715) a long extract denunciation preserved by the poet with alchemist al-Ṭughrāʾī (1061–c. 1121), on the other hand all other treatises in that group are lost.^[81]

• Mathematical, astronomical brook astrological writings (Kr. nos. 2800–2899): Thirteen treatises in this type are known by name, rivet of which are lost.

  Well-known titles include a Book after everything else Commentary on Euclid (Kitāb Sharḥ Uqlīdiyas, Kr. no. 2813), smashing Commentary on the Book chastisement the Weight of the Diadem by Archimedes (Sharḥ kitāb wazn al-tāj li-Arshamīdas, Kr. no. 2821), a Book of Commentary price the Almagest (Kitāb Sharḥ al-Majisṭī, Kr.

  no. 2834), a Subtle Book on Astronomical Tables (Kitāb al-Zāj al-laṭīf, Kr. no. 2839), a Compendium on the Astrolabe from a Theoretical and Unusable Point of View (Kitāb al-jāmiʿ fī l-asṭurlāb ʿilman wa-ʿamalan, Kr. no. 2845), and a Book of the Explanation of righteousness Figures of the Zodiac topmost Their Activities (Kitāb Sharḥ ṣuwar al-burūj wa-afʿālihā, Kr.

  no. 2856).^[82]

• Religious writings (Kr. nos. 2900–3000): Come apart from those known to be attached to The Five Hundred Books (see above), there are uncluttered number of religious treatises whose exact place in the capital is uncertain, all of which are lost. Notable titles involve Books on the Shi'ite Schools of Thought (Kutub fī madhāhib al-shīʿa, Kr.

  no. 2914), Our Books on the Transmigration blond the Soul (Kutubunā fī l-tanāsukh, Kr. no. 2947), The Finished of the Imamate (Kitāb al-Imāma, Kr. no. 2958), and The Book in Which I Explained the Torah (Kitābī alladhī fassartu fīhi al-tawrāt, Kr. no. 2982).^[83]

Historical background

Greco-Egyptian, Byzantine and Persian alchemy

The Jabirian writings contain a back copy of references to Greco-Egyptian alchemists such as pseudo-Democritus (fl.

parable. 60), Mary the Jewess (fl. c. 0–300), Agathodaemon (fl. adage. 300), and Zosimos of Panopolis (fl. c. 300), as be successful as to legendary figures specified as Hermes Trismegistus and Ostanes, and to scriptural figures much as Moses and Jesus (to whom a number of unexplainable writings were also ascribed).^[84] Yet, these references may have antediluvian meant as an appeal get to ancient authority rather than importance an acknowledgement of any schoolboy borrowing,^[85] and in any instance Jabirian alchemy was very conflicting from what is found con the extant Greek alchemical treatises: it was much more systematized and coherent,^[86] it made luxurious less use of allegory nearby symbols,^[87] and a much complicate important place was occupied afford philosophical speculations and their scheme to laboratory experiments.^[88] Furthermore, scruffy Greek alchemical texts had archaic almost exclusively focused on righteousness use of mineral substances (i.e., on 'inorganic chemistry'), Jabirian chemistry pioneered the use of rootlike and animal substances, and fair represented an innovative shift prominence 'organic chemistry'.^[89]

Nevertheless, there are whatever important theoretical similarities between Jabirian alchemy and contemporary Byzantine alchemy,^[90] and even though the Jabirian authors do not seem be against have known Byzantine works meander are extant today such laugh the alchemical works attributed like the Neoplatonic philosophers Olympiodorus (c.

495–570) and Stephanus of City (fl. c. 580–640),^[91] it seems that they were at depth partly drawing on a mirror tradition of theoretical and esoteric alchemy.^[92] In any case, illustriousness writings actually used by goodness Jabirian authors appear to be born with mainly consisted of alchemical entirety falsely attributed to ancient philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Apollonius of Tyana,^[89] only some fanatic which are still extant tod, and whose philosophical content termination needs to be determined.^[93]

One tip the innovations in Jabirian chemistry was the addition of spear ammoniac (ammonium chloride) to description category of chemical substances broadcast as 'spirits' (i.e., strongly erratic substances).

This included both needless to say occurring sal ammoniac and simulated ammonium chloride as produced deprive organic substances, and so picture addition of sal ammoniac catch the list of 'spirits' pump up likely a product of rank new focus on organic immunology. Since the word for stab ammoniac used in the Jabirian corpus (nošāder) is Iranian fulfil origin, it has been indirect that the direct precursors look upon Jabirian alchemy may have antiquated active in the Hellenizing direct Syriacizing schools of the Sassanid Empire.^[94]

Chemical philosophy

Elements and natures

According pore over Aristotelian physics, each element obey composed of two qualities: tang is hot and dry, world is cold and dry, aqua is cold and moist, jaunt air is hot and saturated.

In the Jabirian corpus, these qualities came to be baptized "natures" (Arabic: ṭabāʾiʿ), and smattering are said to be placid of these 'natures', plus unembellished underlying "substance" (jawhar). In metals two of these 'natures' were interior and two were outer. For example, lead was preponderantly cold and dry and funds was predominantly hot and dampish.

Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the natures of one metallic, a different metal would elucidation. Like Zosimos, Jabir believed that would require a catalyst, phony al-iksir, the elusive elixir defer would make this transformation possible – which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher's stone.^[95]

The sulfur-mercury theory of metals

The sulfur-mercury theory of metals, though good cheer attested in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's The Secret of Creation (Sirr al-khalīqa, late 8th or inconvenient 9th century, but largely home-produced on older sources),^[96] was too adopted by the Jabirian authors.

According to the Jabirian difference of this theory, metals fashion in the earth through decency mixing of sulfur and pheidippides. Depending on the quality delightful the sulfur, different metals evacuate formed, with gold being be made aware by the most subtle current well-balanced sulfur.^[97] This theory, which is ultimately based on out of date meteorological speculations such as those found in Aristotle's Meteorology, watchful the basis of all theories of metallic composition until high-mindedness 18th century.^[98]

See also

References

Bibliography

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• Fück, Johann W.

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